Varna and the caste system

In ancient India the ruler was required to protect the social order founded on the system of Varna and Ashrama. He was asked to ensure that every individual performed duties of his Varna and Ashrama as laid down in the Vedas. This kind of social order was regarded most sacrosanct and immutable as it had the sanction of the Vedas which are considered devine creations. In this situation one may be tempted to assume that Vedic religion was the state religion and that the Hindu state was a theocracy. But such an assumption is unwarranted as there never has been an organized theological body to intervene in the affairs of the Hindu state to enforce religious sanctions.

Indian culture as against the western concept of culture proceeded from the initial fervor of ‘duty’ in which lies the guarantee of his ‘right’ while it is the reverve case in the west. In the words of Manu, “ He who persists in discharging his duties in the right manner obtains even in this world, fulfillment of all desires he may have cherished and reaches deathless state (in life beyond).”
In the above discussion begs for a questions what is Varna? Varna is generally translated as ‘caste’ which is also used to denote ‘jati’. But Varna and Jati in the Indian context have two different connotations. Whereas Varna, denotes classs . ‘Jati’ means a community. Hindu philosophers had the psychological insight to realize that human beings have a variegated nature, capacities and potentials, for development , Diversities in nature and temperaments of men are reflected in the planning of Hindu social organization.
The Varna classification of Hindu society is based on division of human beings in four distinct categories. Each category comprises individuals with similar qualities. This classification represents not exclusive but dominant characteristics if individuals. Aptitude of individuals for certain type of work was the sole criterion of classification.
In this classification society is divided into four varnas .viz; Brahamana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, each entrusted with specific duties, keeping in view the general make-up of their mind (guna) and aptitude for doing the work (Karma) assigned to it. This classification aims at creation of maximum efficiency. progress, harmony and ultimately the welfare of the society as a whole, each class strives to achieve maximum efficiency in discharging its duties without encroaching on the specific duties of other classes. Each class has been considered the best in its field capable of attaining the highest perfection in discharging its duties (dharma) to the best of its abilities.

Duties of Varnas:Kautilya, the famous socio-political thinker of India has described the duties of four varnas as follows:-
“The duties of the Brahmanas are – studying(adhyayanam), teaching (adhyaapanam), performing sacrifices for self (yajanam) officiatiating as priests to other people (yaajnanan) making gifts(daanam) and receiving gifts(pratigraha).
The duties of the Kshatriyas are – studying, performing sacrifices for self, making gifts living by the profession of arms (shastrajiva) protecting being s. (Bhootarakshanam).
The duties of the Vaishyas are studying, performing sacrifices for self making gifts, agriculture(Krishi), cattle rearing(pashupaalanam) and trade (vanijya).
The duties of the Shudras are – service of the twice born (dvijas), engaging in an economic calling ,viz, agriculture, cattle rearing and trade varta) and acting , dancing etc. (Kushilava).
A Brahamana in this scheme of classification represents the intellectual class of the society, but he was not expected to be a mere intellectual to know about ideas, without corresponding humility about his knowledge. It was a part of his duty to share his knowledge with others willingly. It may be underlined here that this is the picture of an ideal society as conceived by the Hindu Philosophers. A true Brahmana is expected to be above class feelings and prejudices, possessing serenity, self restraint, austerity and belief in God. These are the attributes of Brahamana – One who has forsaken wrath and infatuation , though himself injured never injures others, he always speaks the truth and ready to serve the elders, is devoted to studies and pure in mind, free from lust and anger. Such person is a true Brahamana(Gita XVIII,42)” The high minded man, who loves all people as his ownself, knows what is right and applies himself to all righteous acts, is a true Brahamana. Possession of all these qualities makes the Brahamana possess an abiding sense of humility”. (Gita V.25)
In the varna system the Brhamana has been visualized as capable of providing moral guidance and leadership to the society. As he is not in pursuit of power and wealth, the Hindu philosophers were wise enough to place the selfless intellectual at the top of the society- subordinating the military to the spiritual authority. The military authority with its natural aggressiveness is quite capable of playing havoc with the whole society. In varna system the Brahamana is visualized to bear the responsibility of restraining martial elements and thus protecting the society from becoming the victim of their excesses. It would thus be seen that the Varna system aimed at protecting and safeguarding the interest of the society as a whole.
Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Hindu philosophers were aware of this universal truth of human nature. Hence they considered fit to make an arrangement that one immediately concerned with the exercise of power should be kept under restraint to abuse his power. The type of Brahmana described above was considered as the ideal class capable of guarding and safeguarding legitimate interests of the society.
According to the blue print of Varna system the Brahamana is supposed to lay down the ideals of the society in accordance with the Dharma in order to maintain high standard of mortality. The Kshatriyas have been assigned the task of implementing of those ideals. The application of the principles of Dharma involves responsibility of protecting the people, preventing social disharmony and punishing offenders. A true Kshatriya has been portrayed as possessing heroic determination to secure the safety of society. He is fearless and courageous. His dynamic spirit is accountable for his fearlessness even while facing imminent death.
The Kshatriyas as the military and ruling class represents the political aspect of the society. The duties of a Kshatriya and a king are almost identical, for the King was generally a Kshatriya. As a ruler he was charged with the responsibility of creating conditions in the society conducive to the peaceful pursuit of various vocations without any let or hindrance or interference from any quarter.
Protection means primarily protection of the person and property of the citizens from antisocial elements. To discharge his responsibilities he has of necessity to meet out punishment and use of force(danda) in order to deliver justice and maintain peace and order. The Brahamana laid down policy (Niti) and the Kshatriya implemented it. Meeting out punishment (Danda) is not doing violence. It needs to be used only to check antisocial elements and secure peace and order in the society. The Kshatriya was enjoined to provide every person the work most suited to him. Kautilya says:
“The king should not allow people to severve from or fail in their duties. The three other Varnas when protected and guarded by the Kshatriya will abide by their duties and vocations”
The state is not above and beyond ethics, nor is it end in itself. State is only a means . according to the Hindu views the means are as important as the ends. Means must have some moral basis. The Kshatriyas are regarded as the guardians and also the servants of the law.
The Vaishyas represent the economic aspect of the Society. They underline the human tendency to possess and enjoy, to give and take. Being practical minded the Vaishyas engaged themselves in trade and many productive activities. They are always exposed to temptations to acquire wealth. They are enjoined to exploit the resources of the society efficiently and make a prudent judgment of all transactions they make . they were advised to spurn earning wealth for its own sake and develop qualities of humanity and sincere service to the society.
Agriculture , trade and commerce provide the life blood to the society. Engaged in these vocations , the Vaishya to had perform a very important role. A perverted Vaishya prone to exploitation and racketeering can do immense harm to the entire society. Hence the king was enjoined to prevent him from treading the path of perversion and to ensure his cooperation in the task of social welfare and maintain stability in the society. The Vaishyas were enjoined to shed greed and realize the true and moral object of the wealth. In the scheme of the Varna system accumulation of personal wealth has not been visualized as the sole motive of this class.
The fourth Varna was that of the shudra . Whereas the Brahmanas class consisted of men of learning , science, literature and thoughts the Kshatriyas were men of action and valour, the Vaishya represented the productive and acquisitive nature of men, the Shudra class consisted of men physically strong and capable of doing good work but possessing low I.Q. and were incapable of dealing with abstract ideas. They were as important part of the society as other three classes. Hence their contribution to society can not be rated low or less valuable than that of the others.

Pilgrimage : Tirthayatra

Pilgrimage to holy places is a practice common to all religions. Followers of every religion look upon certain places specially sacred and they cherish the desire to visit those places at least once in their life. Jerusalem is sacred to both, the Jews and Christian. A devout Christians finds his love for Christ greatly deepened , as all incidents in the life of Christ come alive to him when he visits Jerusalem. Similarly Macca and Madina, two places where prophet Mohammed spent major part of his life, are sacred to Muslims. It has been laid down in the holy Koran that every Muslim must perform Haj-pilgrimage to Mecca and Madina atleast once in his life.
Buddhists from all over the world visit Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar and Lumbini. When a Buddhist goes to Gaya and looks at the sacred, peepal tree under which Siddharth Gautam attained bodhi i.e.enlightenment, hence he is called the Buddha –the enlightened one, his imagination is stirred up and thoughts soar above all wordly things and his aspirations are fixed on attaining Nirvana, the highest goal of a human life. His resolve is further strengthened when he visits Sarnath, near Varanasi, where the Buddha delivered his first sermon. Kushinagar when he preached last and gave up his ghost and Lumbini where he was born.
Hindus are credited to have a large number of holy places from the Himalayas (North) to the Kanyakumari(Southend) and Dwarka in Saurashtra (West) to Kamakhya in Assam and Puri in Orissa (East).
Rabindranath Tagore, the great poet underlining the difference of attitude between the Europeans and Indians has pointed out that a European locating a beautiful and picturesque place would immediately think of building a hotel there for the travelers, but Indians since the past ages have deified nature and declared such places as Tirthas- holy places of pilgrimage and utilized them as a perennial source of inspiration., bestowing peace and consolation to the worried souls..
At the southern end of India’s where the land merges with the vast Indian ocean, the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, is a most fascinating and beautiful spot. It has been proclaimed a seat of eternal divine maiden Kanyakumari. Indians would have viewed the great Niagara fall differently than what it is today-just one fashionable a picnic spot. If such a beautiful place would have been located in India, magnificent temples would have been built there befitting the surroundings and a larger number of pilgrims and travelers would have thronged there than they do now. It has been laid down in the Hindu Shastras that all sins of a man are washed away by taking bath in the holy water of a tirath. The Mahabharata and Puranas get eloquest in the praise of pilgrimage to Tirthas. A pilgrimage to tirthas has been considered more virtuous than the performance of sacrifices. Probably it is due to the reason that performance of sacrifices became so elaborate, complicated and also costly rituals that only kings and very rich persons could afford it. Hinduism, as usual, never became out of tune with new situations and hence it quickly adapted itself to them and declared that pilgrimage to holy places could be performed by all classes of people, the rich and the poor, all castes, from the Brahmanas to the Shudras. The performance of pilgrimage causes destruction of sins and increases piety in the minds of the virtuous. Fruits of pilgrimage are available to all men irrespective of their castes or ashrama, Grihastha or Sanyasa.

1. Badarinarayana : Hindu Tirthas are scattered all over the subcontinent and they are equally sacred and holy. However, the largest network of Tirthas is found in the Himalayas and on the banks of Ganga. Temples of Badarinarayan and Kedarnath are located in Uttarakhand and Amarnath cave is in Jammu & Kashmir. The Himalayas are considered ‘Devabhumi’- the divine land and ‘Devatma’- the divinity ensouled and the Ganga is ‘Suranadi’. the divine river, Lord Shiva had choosen Kailash, the highest peak of the Himalayas, to be his abode. The grandeur and serenity of the Himalayas from the time immemorial have attracted many people of religious frame of mind to devote their time to spiritual culture. It had the ashramas of great rishis who practiced penances and attained siddhis and used them for the benefit of the world. Those ashramas course of time became Tirthas and even famous saints are said to have visited these places for spiritual practices.
The Ganga is a great and the holiest river of the Hindus. It receives its waters from the glaciers of the Central Himalayas and flows through the vast fertile and densely populated tract of North India. The general direction of the river is north-west to south-east and it falls in the Bay of Bengal after traversing a distance of about 2300 Km. The greater of its main head streams, the Alakananda originates from the Tibetan border in Uttarkashi district. The lesser one is called Bhagirathi which originates from the cave of Gangotri and join the Alakananda at Devaprayaga and takes the name of The Ganga. There are five holy confluences- Deva-prayaga, Nanda-Prayaga,Karna-prayaga,Rudra-prayaga and Vishnu Prayaga. It is said that at all these holy places Brahma, the god of creation had performed special sacrifices-hence they are called Prayaga.9The place of sacrifice)
Meandering through the Himalayas and carrying with it a large amount of minerals in its water which makes it quite safe for drinking and described holy, the Ganga reaches the plains of north India at Haridwar. The religious significance of the Ganga is greater than of any other river in the world. It is the Mother banks of Ganga have a special significance, the main among them being Haradwar, Prayag (Allahabad) and Kashi (Varanasi).

2. Haradawar, Prayag and Kashi ; It is at Haridwar that the Ganga leaves the mountain and reaches the great plains of North India, and Prayaga is the point where the Ganga and Yamuna join. Kashi is further down the river of these Kashi is situated on the high elevated bank of the river, on its left side. Because of its geographical location when the Ganga leaves Prayaga and touching theVindhya mountain where the famous Vindhyavasisni Durga Temple is situated, it moves on and dashes against the rocks at Chunar and slightly further down at Ramnagar where the fort of Raja of Banaras stands, the river takes a northern course and reaches below the elevated table-land of Varanasi the other name of Kashi which constitutes the lowest bed of the river and hence the Ganga does not move away from the city. This is the secret of the Hindu mythology that Ganga the consort of Lord Shiva ,the presiding deity of Kashi does not leave the Lord Varanasi the other name of Kashi has been a city of temples since time immemorial where pilgrims throng throughout the year in large numbers. Elsewhere the holiness of the Tirthas acquires special prominence at some point of the year and there are special festivals, notably Magh mela at Prayaga. But Kashi is considered holy round the year.
It is common belief among the Hindus that persons dying in Prayaga or Kashi particularly in Kashi attain salvation- freedom from the cycle of life and birth. Hence large number of Hindus retire to Kashi to breath instant their last on the banks of the Ganga . Starting from one end of the city to the other in the form a curve of about 5 Km. are stone built ghats, a passage of stairways descending to the river, a unique feature of special attraction. They are crowded by the people who take their morning bath in the river and assemble to listen to holy discourses in the evening . The city breathes with piety day and night and all seasons of the year.

3. Gaya : Another Hindu Tirtha is Gaya in Bihar. There are some verses in Mahabharata (Vana Parva) which are quoted in connection with the performance of a special Shraddha at Gaya. It is said, “one should desire for many sons. If one of them goes to Gaya or performs a horse –sacrifice or sets free a black colored bull, his ‘pitras’ –ancestors will attain full and final satisfaction.”
There are many holy spots located within a radius of about 16Km. in Gaya, where ‘pinda’ –cakes of boiled rice are offered to the pitras and it takes seven days to complete the Gaya pilgrimage.
Tirthas have played an important role in building and maintaining the unity of India through the common bond of a common culture. At the time of performing sacred ceremonies and other occasions also seven holy rivers of north & south are invoked by name.”Oh Ye, Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari,Saraswati,Narmada,Sindhu and Kaveri come and abide in this water (offered by me).
Similarly we have seven Kula (sacred) mountains, viz Mahendra-hills between Godawari and Mahanandi”, Malaya- southern portion of western ghats from Nilgiri to Kanyakumari, Sahya –northern portion of western ghats from Tapti river to Nilgiris, Suktimana- Garo- Khasia and Tripura hills, Riksha, Satpura hills, Vindhya-region east of Bhopal and Parijata, Western portion of the Vindhya, west of Bhopal.
There are seven sacred cities – Puri, Ayodhya, Mathura, Avantika(Ujjain), Kashi (Varanasi), Maya (Haridwara), Kanchi (Tamilnadu) and Dvaravati (Dwarika) which are believed to have powers to grant salvation – moksha. Twelve Jyotirlingas and fifty one Shaktipithas are located in different parts of India. Pious Hindus are expected to visit these holy places on pilgrimage to them as a part of their sacred duty. Apparently they have been chosen to lead the masses out of their homes to undertake an all India tour as a pilgrim, so that they may acquaint themselves with different shades of people speaking different languages, wearing different kinds of dress, eating variety of food and feel the unity in this variety. Under the peculiar religious systems of India, people living in south India always long for Kashi while those in the north have an earnest desire to go to Setu Ram Rameshwaram at and KanyaKumari and both have a common yearning for Dwaraka and Jagannath Puri . People from the north,south, east and west meet and embrace each other in these tirthas and convey their feelings without the knowledge and grasp of their respective languages.

TWELVE KINDS OF SONS

For perpetuating the family-line and offering panda (a ball or lump of boiled rice) to the dead ancestors at obsequies ceremonies or Shraddha and - a son is necessary According to Hindu belief a man is born with three debts- rina trayaee i.e. Devarina, ‘debts to the deities’ , Rishirina ‘debts to the Rishis, the seers, sages and Pitririna, ‘debt to the ‘dead ancestors; The first of these can be discharged by performing Yajna, i.e. sacrifices, worship and prayers to gods and charities. The second is discharged by study and teaching and the third by procreating children to perpetuate the family line. Among the children a son was considered necessary.
Manu, Yajnavalkya, Devala etc. who are main lawgivers have recognized as many as twelve kinds of sons.

1.Aurasa : Literally one produced by the breast i.e. fathered by husband in his duly married wife.

2.Putrikaputra : Putrika in the traditional Hindu Law books ha been used as a technical word for a girl who has no brother. In the absence of an aurasa son, the father treated his daughter as a son. Alternatively a son born in that daughter was also called Putrikaputra. Daughter’s son who by agreement or adoption becomes son of her father.


3.Kshetraja : Born in the field(of the husband). The wife has been treated as the field and a son born to her under abnormal circumstances viz, when the husband was incapable or dead, was called a Kshetraja. This practice was also called niyoga i.e. by appointment. Some conditions for niyoga were laid down. The foremost condition was that the wife must not have a living son at the time of niyoga and the appointed person to father should be the younger brother of the husband or any person equally placed in the fathers family or a Brahamana.
The Pandavas were Kshetraja sons of Pandu; Dhritarashtra and Pandu were themselves niyoja sons of Vichitravirya and were fathered by Vyasa by appointment in his wives namely, Ambalika and Ambika respectively.

4. Dattaka – Gifted, donated : In the absence of a real i.e Aurasa son, a male child gifted by his parents could be adopted to continue the line of the father. There were strict rules for adoption. The guiding principle was that the son so adopted must be the true image of the father. Hence a child being adopted must be born to a woman who was eligible to be the wife of the adoptive father. For example a sister’s son could not be adopted because marriage between brothers and sisters was forbidden under the Hindu Law. It has been laid down that the only son can not be given and adopted as it will result in the failure of spiritual benefit to the natural father. Similarly the eldest son also could not be adopted.
Also one and the same child could not be adopted by two or more persons. According to Hindu law certain ceremonies were also required for a valid adoption. However, by a special legislation all restrictions on adoption have now been removed and a Hindu can adopt any person, male or female without any distinction of caste or blood relation.

5. Kritrima : An artificial son. A child treated and brought up as a son without any formal rites.
6. Gudhaja : A son secretly born to the wife without her husband’s knowledge.


7. Apaviddha – thrown away : Apaviddha means rejected
- A child cast away or abandoned by the natural parents on his
birth and taken by some person as his son. Such a child could inherit the property of the man who brought him up, but ancestors of the person who took and brought him up would not accept pinda offered by him.






8. Kanina : A son of a maiden. He was deemed to be the son of the girl who married her.
A typical example of a kanina son is Karna, the famous hero of the epic Mahabharata. He was the son of Kunti and fathered by Surya, the Sun God. Kunti had abandoned him on his birth she was subsequently married to Pandu and gave birth to Yudhishthira, Bhima and Arjuna and became sons of Pandu and known as Pandavs. Karna would have inherited the throne of Hastinapur after the death of Pandu being his eldest son as per Hindu law, but the union was kept secret by Kunti and she revealed the truth only after the death of Karna. Yudhisthira cursed his mother Kunti for keeping this secret to her chest, so that a brother namely Arjuna unknowingly killed his own elder brother Karna.

9. Sahodha : A son is brought with the marriage, if a woman was pregnant at the time of her marriage, the son born to her after her marriage was deemed to be the son of the man who married her.

10. Krita : A purchased son.

11. Paunarbhava
The son of a virgin widow. She after her marriage became a ‘Punarbhu married second time’ such marriages were permitted when the husband died before consummation of the marriage. Widow marriage was the custom which still continues in many castes. Divorce and widow marriages were freely allowed in these castes. The law givers only extended the recognition to sons born to such women by their previous husbands.

12. Svayamdatta,
‘Self Offered son’ -When an orphaned boy went to some person and offered himself to be his son and the latter accepted his offer, the boy in such a case was called Svayamdatta .

Inclusion of so many types of sons, particularly the kanina, the son of a maiden; gudhaja , a son secretly born and sahodha has been criticized by some western authors who said that the Hindu society in ancient times was lacking in morals and that they were indifferent to sexual purity by recongising them as sons. But this is not a correct view. Hindus have maintained very high standard of morality in all ages. Virginity in the case of women has been over emphasized by the Hindu society and sexual laxity has been condemned in most unfailing terms and very harsh punishment has been prescribed for adultery and offences. But the Hindu society was not so harsh to the children born out of wedlock or even in wedlock. It was with a view to fix up responsibility for upbringing of such children that the Hindu legislators have taken a lenient view in such cases and have made provision for welfare of such unfortunate children.

Hindu Society has a very long history spreading over several millennia. It is an amalgamation of numerous tribes and castes who had their own customs and manners and they were at different stages of civilization and did not have standard uniform practices in matters pertaining to social conduct and sexual morality. Hindu legislators have only given recognition and legislative cover to meet their varying requirements Customs of marriage and inheritance has been given legal cover by incorporating them in the Smritis and digests – Books of Hindu Law.

Explaining the grounds for recognition of so many types of sons P. N. Sen ancient jurist had said “According to the ancient concept of family relationships among the Aryans , a child must be under patria proticta of some individuals and this was confined to the case of a legitimate child born in lawful wife by her husband. The question therefore arose: how in any other case should it be determined as to who was the person under whose patria proticta a particular child stood? The answer to the question was furnished by enumeration of subsidiary sons.”

Of these twelve, the first i.e. Asura was called primary son and the rest as secondary sons.

MYTHOLOGY AND HISTORICTY OF AVATARA

Avatara literally means descent, especially of a deity from the heaven and its appearance on the earth, but alternatively it indicates the incarnation of Vishnu.
The origin of the concept of Avatara has been traced to the Vedic literature. The Shatapatha Brahmana refers to the devine form of Fish(Matsya), Tortoise(Kurma) and Dwarf (Vamana). It is said that having assumed the form of a Tortoise Prajapati created offspring. In the form of a boar he lifted the earth from the waters. The Taittiriya Brahmana repeats the story relating to boar lifting the earth from water. It also alludes to Narsimha or Man-lion. Reference to deified fish is found in the Shatapatha Brahmana which narrates the legend of the great deluge.
In the Shatapatha and Taittiriya Brahmana the avataras of fish, tortoise and boar are represented as the manifestations of Prajapati Brahma. However in later mythologies these avataras have been specifically related to Vishnu. The great Gupta Kings, Samundragupta and Chandragupta were devout adherents and patrons of the Bhagavata cult related to Vishnu. It was during their reigns that Vaishnavism became the most popular religion in India. In the Gita, some sections of Mahabharata and the Puranas which assumed their final shape in the Gupta period (320-550 A.D.). Vishnu was elevated to the position of supreme God and was represented as the almighty savior of the man-kind who incarnated himself from time to time in human or animal forms for the protection of the pious and destruction of the wicked.
As regards the actual number of Avataras there are different versions. However, traditionally it is accepted as ten. Very often the order of names in the list differs. The names of ten Avataras are as follows ;
1. Matsya (Fish) 2. Kurma (Tortoise) 3. Varaha (Boar) 4. Narsimha (Man-lion) 5. Vamana (Dwarf) 6. Parshuram (Rama, the bearer of battle axe) 7. Ram Chandra Rama, the bearer of bow and arrow.8. Balaram Haldhar ( Ram, the bearer of plough). (He is replaced by the Buddha in some text). 9. Krishna (The leader of Cowherds-Gopala), and 10. Kalki ( who is to come).


As is the standard list of Avataras . However, sometimes changes are also found in number. The Mahabharata while adhering to ten names, makes a significant change – it includes Hansa (Vihangama – the bird). The Bhagawata Puran also has mentioned this avatara. The Harivamsha Purana has added another important name of Lotus.
The number of avataras went on increasing as a result of constant meditation and speculation about the origin of the universe and evolution of life on it and enquiry into ultimate relations and reached twenty four. Out of these Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Lotus and Hansa are cosmogenic in which animals and plants have been deified, while Narasimha, Vamana, Parashu ram, Ram Chandra, Balaram and Krishna are depicted as human beings. All these represent various stages in the evolution of human civilization with the development of technology and lastly the Kalki, the future incarnation points out the direction of future scientific and technological developments.
The myth has been defined as a traditional or legendary story, usually connected with deities or dermigods and creation of the would be inhabitants. It is a story of belief that attempts to express or explain a basic truth.
A critical examination of the mythology of avataras reveals the mystery of life on our planet and its evolution quite in the same way as the Darvinian theory of evolution and natural selection.
There is evidence to prove that all living beings on our planet have descended from the same original ancestor. Indians in contrast to contrast to the other religions have emphasized this kinship between the man and the animal and even plants and discovered the existence of mind in many of them.

1. Matsya Avatara :It represents the age of fishes of Fishes
Many scientists have speculated about the beginnings of life on our planet, but there is no definite or convincing idea about the way life began. However, there is a general consensus at least one point that life began in waters and that its earliest forms which have left fossils were vertebrates (Ekashringa – tanu of Puranas) animals or the earliest fishes. In the Indian mythology it is known as Matsya Avatara, marking the beginning of the age of Fishes.
The early world was of strong tides and currents, not favorable to animals of bigger size. Their existence became possible when the tides and currents calmed down, sufficiently for their survival. This changing phenomena was rightly speculated by Indian thinkers. In the Shatapatha Brahmana which describes relates the story of the great deluge, it is mentioned that a tiny fish landed on the palms of Manu, who taking pity on the animals, put it in his Kamandalu in which it began to grow in size slowly so much so that at last Manu had to release it in the ocean. On the eve of deluge the fish arrived and rescued Manu by toeing his boat to a safest place sat the top of the mountain. This kind of evolution from a small fish to a huge must have taken millions of years to materialize.

2. Lotus –or Padma It represents the Age of Plants as Mentioned in the Puranas
During the age of fishes there was no soil and the life existed only in the sea. Subsequently when extensive shallow seas and lagoons came into existence, fishes spread out towards the land. Scientists believe that plants preceded animals. But there was no real soil which could provide some stiff support to it to hold up straight when the water was withdrawn . Lotus is a representative plant that came into existence in this period. It could survive in the Swamp after the evaporation of water also.

3. Kurma - The Tortoise : It Represents the Age of Amphibia
By this time large number of insects also came into being. Hitherto almost all living beings breathed air dissolved in water and only some of them had learnt to breathe outside the water.
Geologists believe that there existed many shallow lagoons which very slowly drying up. Some of the fishes which could not find a safe passage to water survived in the new situation by crawling out of the dried up lagoons. They adapted themselves to the new environment and gradually acquired and developed legs and began to eat land plants or insects. Fossils illustrating various steps in the process are available now. In course of time such animals came into being by the processes of evolution and natural selection as are called amphibian the tortoises and turtles. They started laying eggs on land and returned to water. They did not hatch them. Eggs carried on their development independently before hatching to a stage so nearly like the adult form that the young once when they came out of the shells could breath in the air from the first moment.

4. Hansa - Swan represents the age of Evolution of birds
A group of hopping small creatures seem to have been pushed up to the higher hills close to sea. Some of these creatures developed a new type of scales that were clongated and branched into feathers and later wings instead of sheaths to cover their bodies. They also developed more concern for their eggs. Most of the reptiles are quite careless in this matter. They leave their eggs for the sun and weather to hatch them but some of the new reptiles developed the habit of keeping guard on and hatching their eggs. Hansa- swan is the surviving representative of such early birds. Since it marked an important revolutionary stage in the evolution of life, the Hansa is also included in the list of avataras in recorded in the Mahabharta and Bhagvata Purana Hindu mythology.
Hansa is an aquatic bird, that lives in and near moist and swampy places.

5. Varaha : The Boar : It represents the age of evolution of mammals and the process of drying up lagoons and shallow waters. According to a legend recorded in the Taittiriya Brahmana . Prajaparti Brahma rescued the earth from water assuming the form of a boar. He wiped of the moisture from her and she became the extended one -Prithvi
Prithvi. It is also said that the earth was lifted by a black boar with a hundred arms.
It may be mentioned that mythology is not history but without hesitation it can be said that the myth narrates a sacred history. It relates to an event that took place in primordial times. In other words a myth explains how through the deeds of some supernatural being a reality came into existence, be it the whole or only a fragment of it. Myth is then an account of the creation. It relates how some thing was produced. It tells us only what really happened. Actors in that myth are supernatural beings. In short, myths describe various breakthroughs into the world. The cosmogenic myth is true because the existence of the earth is there to prove it.
The myth of Varah (boar) avatara relates to a period when the lagoons and marshy lands on our planet were drying up but the universe was still covered with water. Some plants like lotus had grown but the water was required to be drained out to acquire land for useful purposes by human beings. The Varaaha myth speculates on the creation of water channels-rivers to carry the water in the sea. Boars or pigs belong to the fourfooted mammalian class. In that class the mother suckles her young ones it is common knowledge that the pig in search of food dig up the earth by their horns to pull out the roots. In this process they are believed to have created channels which drained out water that slowly formed rivers- natural streams of water of fairly large sizes, flowing in definite courses or channels or series of diverging and converging channels. The Varaha legend metaphistorically describes this process of retrieving the earth from water it is interesting to note that all Varaha Tirthas are located on the banks of rivers and lakes.

ANTYESHTI – The Funeral Rites

The last sacrament of the Hindus is Antyeshti or the funeral rites. Like the phenomenon of death, rites and customs connected with the disposal of the dead body are also universal. Man consciously realizes that death is an inevitable end of every human being. As such it is but natural that every actual occurrence of death should provide an occasion for the living to react to this fact by appropriate behavior.
After death, a sentiment of dread is created in the survivors. There is a belief that even the deceased continues to have some kind of interest in the family property and relatives whom he is unwilling to quit. It is also believed that although after death the man is alienated from the survivors, he may cause some harm to them. In the formal farewell given to him he is requested to depart and is provided with all the articles considered necessary for a traveler, so that he could complete his journey comfortably to the next world. As the Pitriloka. The world of ancestors which is located between the heaven and earth- is considered a replica of the world everything for starting a new life is provided to him.
The object of the suitable disposal of the dead body and the accompanying rites and ceremonies are meant to protect the survivors from the defilement of death. It is believed that until these rites and ceremonies are properly performed the soul of the deceased hovers around the house and haunts its relatives as a preta and does not find its proper place in the company of the ancestors. This kind of belief is found almost universally among Hindus and also the ancient Greeks and Egyptians.
It is not surprising; therefore, that funerary customs in most of the societies exceed the practical, rational minimum required for the mere disposal of the body. It is ritualized with, sometimes very elaborately, but it is also accompanied by a great variety of predisposal and post disposal rites, some of them continuing over a long period after the death, cremation or burial etc. as per the prevalent custom.
The variety of funeral customs is immense. It is due to many factors and influences, geographical, cultural and historical. It is a peculiar combination of these factors which is distinctive and decisive. Thus mummification could originate only in areas having a dry climate (Egypt) and necessary preservative material. In Northern areas where the ground is frozen for most of the year burial is impractical. Beliefs concerning the individual’s destiny and after life also play an important role
Cremation or burning of the dead body is the most recognized mode of the disposal of the corpse among the Hindus.